The ability of an organism to maintain internal stability is known as homeostasis.
Metabolism- the sum of all the chemical reactions that occur within the cells of an organism.
Organic molecules contain both carbon and hydrogen.
[smallest] Cells( Tissues( Organs( Organ Systems( Organism [biggest]
Organelle- small parts that make up a cell (each has at least one specific function)
Vacuoles-- stores waste and water (large in plant cells, small in animal cells)
ribosomes- located on the endoplasmic reticulum; they are where proteins are made (protein synthesis)
mitochondria-mighty mitochondria (where energy is made) aka: respiration
glucose + oxygen ( carbon dioxide + water + ENERGY (ATP)
chloroplasts-only in plant cells; where photosynthesis happens
carbon dioxide + water ( glucose + water + oxygen
nucleus-control center of the cell (brain); contains DNA
cell membrane-controls what comes in and goes out of the cell (selectively permeable)
Cell membrane-
separates the contents of the cell from the outside environment
controls the transport of materials into and out of the cell.
Recognizes and responds to chemical signals by using receptor protein molecules.
Draw the Fluid Mosiac Model:
7 Passive Transport- movement of molecules from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.
Active Transport- moving a molecule from LOW concentration to a HIGH concentration Uses ENERGY (ATP)
DIGESTION- breaking large molecules down into smaller molecules.
Proteins are broken down into AMINO ACIDS.
Starches are broken down into SIMPLE SUGARS.
Fats (LIPIDS) are broken down to FATTY ACIDS & GLYCEROL.
10. Human Body Systems.
Name of systemWhat it doesOrgansA malfunctionDigestive
BREAKS DOWN FOOD INTO NUTRIENTS & PUTS THEM IN THE BLOOD STREAMMOUTH, ESOPHAGUS, STOMACH, SMALL INTESTINE, LARGE INTESTINE, RECTUMAN ULCER IS A HOLE IN THE LINING OF THE STOMACHCirculatory
CARRIES GASSES AND NUTRIENTS THROUGHOUT THE BODYHEART, ARTERIES, VEINS, CAPILLARIES HEART ATTACKRespiratory
EXCHANGES CARBON DIOXIDE WITH OXYGENLUNGS, DIAPHRAGMEMPHYSEMA, AIR SACS IN THE LUNGS BECOME ENLARGED AND CANNOT FUNCTION PROPERLYExcretory
REMOVES WASTES FROM THE BLOOD AND THEN FROM THE BODYKIDNEYS, URETER, BLADDER, URETHRAKIDNEY STONE, A PAINFUL BLOCKAGE OF ONE PART OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEMNervous
CONTROLS THE FUNCTIONING OF THE REST OF THE BODYBRAIN, SPINAL CORD, NERVE CELLSCYSTIC FIBROSIS
TOPIC 2
11Chemicals produced in the endocrine glands (HORMONES) and chemicals produced by nerve cells are primarily responsible for communication between cells.
12. MITOCHONDRIA (RESPIRATION)- uses oxygen to break down food molecules to release energy.
13 TRANSPORT-involves the movement of materials inside the cell as well as the movement between parts of a multicellular organism.
14 EXCRETION- the removal of all waste produced by the cells of the body.
15.Failure to maintain homeostasis can result in SICKNESS or DEATH
16.Photosynthesis-Storing energy
17.Formula for Photosynthesis: CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER ( GLUCOSE + OXYGEN + WATER
18. Where is photosynthesis carried out? CHLOROPLASTS OF PLANTS
19.Respiration- Releasing energy (ATP)
20.Cellular respiration occurs in the MITOCHONDRIA OF ALL ORGANISMS
21.Formula for Respiration: GLUCOSE + OXYGEN ( CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER + ENERGY (ATP)
22 ENZYMES -special proteins that affect the rate of chemical reactions.
23.Enzyme reaction rates are affected by
shape- IF IT ISN’THE CORRECT SHAPE IT WON’T WORK
temperature- EACH ENZYME WORKS BEST AT A SPECIFIC TEMPERATURE
pH-- EACH ENZYME WORKS BEST AT A SPECIFIC pH
24. Dynamic Equilibrium- steady state-balance- aka: HOMEOSTASIS
25.Positive feedback- a change prompts a response to a greater change and a greater response
example- AS YOU PUNCH ME HARDER; I PUNCH YOU HARDER (BOTH INCREASE OR BOTH DECREASE)
26. Negative feedback-more common
example- AS THE TEMPERATURE IN YOUR HOUSE GOES UP, THE THERMOSTAT TURNS OFF; ANS THE TEMPERATURE GOES DOWN, THE THERMOSTAT TURNS ON
(AS ONE GOES UP THE OTHER GOES DOWN)OR THE OPPOSITE
27.When glucose levels are above normal the pancreas secretes INSULIN
This hormone prompts glucose to move from the blood into body cells, resulting in a lower glucose level in the blood. Another hormone secreted by the pancreas works in the opposite way. When the glucose level in the blood is too low, this hormone prompts the release of glucose stored in the BLOOD.
(****NEGATIVE FEEDBACK)
TOPIC 3
28. CANCER : certain genetic mutations in a cell can result in uncontrolled cell division.
29 CIRCULATORY system is the body's primary defense against disease-causing pathogens. (IMMUNITY)
30. SURFACE RECEPTOR PROTEIN- a molecule found on the outer surfaces if cells that the immune system recognizes as either part of the body or an outside invader.
31 ANTIBODIES are known as your body’s army to fight diseases.
32.The diseases or pathogens are known as ANTIGENS
33.HEREDITY- is the passing of genetic information from one generation to the next through reproduction.
34.The hereditary information DNA is organized in the form of genes located in the NUCLEUS of each cell.
35.Differences between asexual and sexual reproduction
Asexual reproductionSexual reproductionIDENTICAL CELLSNOT IDENTICAL CELLS1 PARENT2 PARENTSNO GENETIC VARIATIONGENETIC VARIATIONAMEBA, PARAMECIUM, FUNGIHUMANS, PLANTS
36.Identical genetic copies are known as CLONES.
37.DNA is made of a PHOSPHATE, a SUGAR and a BASE
38.Draw a nucleotide here:
39. Bases are A, T, G, C
A IS PAIRED WITH T
G IS PAIRED WITH C
40. How does DNA make a protein?
DNA IS STUCK IN THE NUCLEUS, SO IT SENDS A MESSENGER (SINGLE- STRANDED MESSENGER RNA) TO THE RIBOSOME WHERE THE RIBOSOME READS THE MESSAGE AND DIRECTS THE TRANSFER RNA (TRUCKS) TO BRING IT AMINO ACIDS. THE RIBOSOME THEN PUTS THE AMINO ACIDS TOGETHER IN THE CORRECT ORDER TO MAKE A PROTEIN.
41.Any alteration of the DNA sequence is a MUTATION which changes the normal message carried by the gene.
Substitution- ONE BASE IS PUT IN THE PLACE OF ANOTHER
Deletion-A BASE IS LEFT OUT
Addition-A BASE IS ADDED
Inversion-BASES ARE SWITCHED
42.An organism's environment can affect the way that some genes are expressed.
Example- HIMILILIAN RABBIT
43 GENETIC ENGINEERING-- is a technology that humans use to alter the genetic instructions in organisms.
44 SELECTIVE BREEDING a process that produces domestic animals and new varieties of plants with traits that are desirable. (ONLY PLANTING SEEDS FROM THE STRONGEST CORN) **NOT CHANGING THE DNA!!
45.Gene splicing-CUTTING DNA AND PLACING IT INTO ANOTHER ORGANISM
Example: Insulin-PUTTING THE GENE FOR INSULIN INTO BACTERIA, AND THE BACTERIA PRODUCES INSULIN FOR HUMANS
46 SPECIES is a group of closely related organisms that share certain characteristics and can produce new individuals through reproduction.
TOPIC 4
47. Differences between mitosis and meiosis
Mitotic divisionMeiotic divisionasexualsexualONE cell divisionTWO cell divisions# functioning cells 2Male 4 SPERM and female 3 POLAR BODIES, 1 EGGGenetic makeup IDENTICALGenetic makeup 1/2 OF ORIGINAL CELLFunction TO MAKE IDENTICAL CELLSFunction TO MAKE CELLS WITH ½ OF INFO
48.Gametes unite to form a ZYGOTE
49.If the gametes each have 23 chromosomes, then what does their zygote have? FORTY-SIX
50 DIFFERENTIATION- the process that transforms developing cells into specialized cells with different structures and functions.
51.female- ovaries, progesterone, estrogen, uterus, placenta, egg
52.male- testosterone, sperm
53.Reproductive technology
Artificial insemination: USING SPERM FROM A DONOR
Amniocentesis: REMOVING SOME OF THE CELLS FROM AROUND THE FETUS AND ANALYZING THEM
Karyotype: ARRANGING THE CHROMOSOMES IN SIMILAR PAIRS (HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS) BY SIZE TO SEE IF THE FETUS HAS ANY CHROMOSOMAL PROBLEMS LIKE DOWN SYNDROME (3 COPIES OF CHROMOSOME #21)
In vitro-fertilization: REMOVING EGGS FROM THE FEAMLE AND SPERM FROM THE MALE, FERTILIZING THE EGG IN A PETRI DISH, THEN IMPLANTING IT INTO THE UTERUS.
TOPIC 5
54 EVOLUTION-the process by which organisms have changed overtime-
simple, single-celled: complex-single-celled: complex, multicellular
Natural selection-NATURE SELECTS THOSE INDIVIDUALS WHO ARE BEST FIT FOR THE ENVIRONMENT.
overproduction-MORE OFFSPRING ARE PRODUCED THAN CAN SURVIVE
competition-THE FIGHT FOR LIMITED RESOURCES
Variation-DIFFERENCES AMONG ORGANISMS IN A SPECIES (SEXUALLY REPRODUCING ORGANISMS HAVE MORE VARIATION THAN ASEXUALLY REPRODUCING ORGANISMS)
Any trait that helps an organism survive and reproduce under a given set of environmental conditions is said to have AN ADAPTIVE VALUE
The failure to adapt to a changing environment may result in the EXTINCTION of a species.
61. EXTINCTION is the disappearance of an entire species.
Extinction occurs when the ENVIRONMENT changes, and the SPECIES DOESN’T ADAPT
TOPIC 6
63 ECOLOGY is the study of how organisms interact with the living and nonliving things.
BIOTIC factors: plants, animals.
Abiotic factors- NON-LIVING PARTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT (ROCKS, AIR, Ph, sunlight)
66 A species’ role in the environment-NICHE (it’s JOB and what it EATS)
POPULATION- all the organisms of a species that live in the same area.
COMMUNITY- all the different populations in an area.
69 BIOSPHERE- all of earth's ecosystems
70 COMPETITION- is the struggle for resources among organisms.
Factors in the environment that limit the size of populations are known as LIMITING FACTORS
examples: FOOD, SHELTER, MATES, SPACE, OXYGEN, ETC.
The number or organisms of any species that an ecosystem can support is referred to as its CARRYING CAPACITY
PREDATORS kill and eat other organisms and PREY which are killed for food.
74.autotrophs-(PRODUCERS)MAKE THEIR OWN FOOD BY PHOTOSYNTHESIS
heterotrophs-MUST EAT SOMETHING FOR FOOD (CONSUMERS)
herbivores-CAN ONLY EAT PLANTS
carnivores-CAN ONLY EAT ANIMALS
omnivores-CAN EAT PLANTS & ANIMALS (ALL humans!!!!)
consumers-SAME AS HETEROTROPHS
decomposers- BREAK ORGANISMS DOWN AND RETURN NUTRIENTS TO THE SOIL
scavengers-EXAMPLE: VULTURES…EAT DEAD ORGANISMS THAT THEY DID NOT KILL THEMSELVES
parasites-LIVE OFF OF ANOTHER ORGANISM (HOST) AND DO NOT KILL THEM USUALLY (THE PARASITE BENEFITS, THE HOST IS HARMED)
producers-SAME AS AUTOTROPHS
75.Difference between a food chain and a food web A FOOD CHAIN IS A COMBINATION OF MANY FOOD CHAINS TOGETHER (BECAUSE MOST ORGANISMS EAT MORE THEN 1 FOOD)
76.What is the main source of energy on the earth? THE SUN
77.On an energy pyramid where is the most amount of energy located?
THE BOTTOM LAYER (THE PRODUCERS)
78.On the energy pyramid, each level above gets smaller. Where does the energy go? INTO THE ENVIRONEMNT (LOST AS HEAT)
TOPIC 7
Recycling and reusing materials
name the 3 cycles:
1. CARBON CYCLE
2. WATER CYCLE
3. NITROGEN CYCLE
80. BIODIVERSITY is a measurement of the degree to which species vary within an ecosystem.
81.As biodiversity increases, STABILITY of an ecosystem increases.
82.Name how man has affected biodiversity in some areas.
1. CUT DOWN TREES (FOR WOOD)
2. PLANTED ALL OF THE SAME CROP IN AN AREA
3. REMOVED VEGETATION FOR HOUSES, PARKING LOTS, ETC.
4. KILLED ORGANISMS AND DESTROYED THE FOOD WEB (BECAUSE ALL ORGANISMS ARE LINKED TO ONE ANOTHER IN ONE WAY OR ANOTHER)
83.Ecological succession in a rocky field: ROCKS(MOSS(GRASSES( SHRUBS(TREES
Ecological succession in a pond: POND (PLANTS AND ORGANISMS START TO DIE(SEDIMENT BUILDS UP(POND GETS SHALLOW( GETS SWAMPY( FIELD
84.renewable resources-RESOURCES THAT CAN REPLENISH THEMSELVES IF NOT ABUSED (LIKE TREES)
nonrenewable resources-RESOURCES THAT TAKE A LONG TIME TO REPLACE OR FORM (LIKE COAL, OIL)
85.Preserving our resources:
1.Reduce- CUT DOWN ON THE AMOUNT USED (SMALLER PACKAGING)
Reuse- USE IT FOR ANOTHER APPLICATION (OLD TIRES AS FLOWER PLANTERS)
recycle- CAN BE USED TO MAKE THE PRODUCT AGAIN (LIKE POP BOTTLES)
86 POLLUTION a harmful change in the chemical makeup of the air, water, or soil.
87.HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND THE LOSS OF DIVERSITY
Direct harvesting-THE DESTRUCTION OF AN ORGANISM
Land use-FINDING THE BEST WAY TO LIVE IN THE ENVIRONMENT- BUILDING AROUND TREES INSTEAD OF CUTTING THEM DOWN AND PLANTING NEW ONES.
habitat destruction- TEARING OUT A PART OF THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
deforestation- REMOVING FORESTS FOR PROFIT
imported species (invasive species or exotic species) example: PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE; ZEBRA MUSSELS; DANDELIONS
88.Impact of technology and industrialization
industrialization- increases pollution of air and water- uses more energy, water and fossil and nuclear fuels.
Water pollution-from sewage, wastes from homes and factories and animal wastes
3.Toxic wastes- DDT
Thermal pollution- HEAT POLLUTION
air pollution- burning fossil fuels
acid rain- CARRYING THE POLLUTANTS IN TH CLOUDS, THEN THE RAIN HAS A LOW Ph (acidic)
smog-LOTS OF AIR POLLUTION, LOOKS “CLOUDY OR HAZY”
global warming-AN INCREASE IN THE EARTH’S TEMPERATURE CAUSED BY AN INCREASE IN GREENHOUSE GASES (GREENHOUSE EFFECT)
7. ozone depletion- HOLE IN OZONE LAYER (UV FROM THE SUN ISN’T BLOCKED; CAN LEAD TO SUNBURN, & CANCER!!!) **this is not the greenhouse effect!!!
TOPIC 8
89.Independent variable: THE ONE THAT “I CHANGED”
90.Dependent variable: THE ONE THAT CHANGES BECAUSE OF THE IV
Control group: THE GROUP THAT IS STUDIED UNDER THE NORMAL CONDITIONS
Controls: EVERYTHING THAT STAYS THE SAME
Organizing data
Where does the Independent variable go on a data table? What about the Dependent variable?
IVDV
Where does the Independent variable go on a graph? What about the Dependent variable?
TOPIC 9
Parts of the microscope:
Eyepiece: THE PART THAT YOU LOOK THROUGH (CLOSEST TO THE EYE) USUALLY 10X
Objective: THE MAGNIFYING PART CLOSEST TO THE SLIDE (HIGH POWER=USUALLY 40X; LOW POWER=USUALLY 10X)
Fine adjustment knob: USED TO FOCUS ON LOW & HIGH POWER
Course adjustment knob: USED TO FOCUS ONLY ON LOW POWER
Stage: WHERE THE SLIDE IS PLACED
Stage clips: HOLD THE SLIDE IN PLACE
Diaphragm: CONTROLS THE AMOUNT OF LIGHT USED
95. How to calculate total magnification: if a microscope has a 10X eyepiece, and 10X and 40X objectives.
TOTAL MAG. ON LOW POWER: 10 X 10 = 100X (IT LOOKS 100 TIMES BIGGER THAN REAL LIFE)
TOTAL MAG. ON HIGH POWER: 10 X 40 = 400X (IT LOOKS 400 TIMES BIGGER THAN REAL LIFE)
Total Low power: 100X Total High power: 400X
96. How to make a wet mount slide:
PUT THE CELLS ON THE CENTER OF A SLIDE, PUT A DROP OF WATER WITH A DROPPER ONTO THE CELLS (DO NOT TOUCH THE CELLS); LOWER A COVERSLIP SLOWLY AT AN ANGLE (TO REDUCE THE NUMBER OF AIR BUBBLES)
97. How to put stain on a slide without lifting the coverslip:
PUT A DROP OF THE STAIN ONTO THE EDGE OF THE COVERSLIP; PLACE A PAPERTOWEL ON THE EDGE OF THE OTHER SIDE OF THE COVERSLIP, THE PAPERTOWEL WILL PULL THE WATER FROM UNDER THE COVERSLIP, AND INTURN PULL THE STAIN ONTO THE CELLS
